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Dalit Entrepreneurs

CHAPTER IV WRITING DALIT GENDER: DALIT …shodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/9863/10/10...118 CHAPTER IV WRITING DALIT GENDER: DALIT AMONG DALITS This chapter sets out to explore

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On Dalit literature – recent publications

These are books that are valuable additions to the landscape of Dalit literature that is fortunately becoming richer and richer with every passing year as newer translations or original writings in English are being made available for a larger audience.

Buy  Ants Among Elephants  ( Print and Kindle ) 

When I Hid My Caste  ( Print and Kindle ) 

My Father Baliah  ( Print and Kindle ) 

Karukku  ( Print ) 

Baluta ( Print and Kindle ) 

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 A Critical Discourse On Dalit Literature and Literary Theory

According to the hymn in India, Brahmin were born from the mouth of Brahma, Kshatriyas were born from his shoulder, Vaishyas from his thighs, while the Shudras were born from his feet. Therefore, the Brahmin are considered as most superior, while the Shudras are at the lowest position in hierarchy. Shudras were considered to be the untouchables and were named as “Dalit” by Mahatma Jyotiba Phule. The term Dalit became the new identity of the oppressed and depressed social class in India. Dalit Literature can be considered as the literary compositions that are based on the caste system in India and explains the oppression and pain experienced by Dalits and therefore by considering this fact into consideration it would not be wrong to state that, in spite of having history of Dalit literature which can be traced back to centuries, dalit literature was not given its due place in the field of literary production in India, which is also influenced by caste nuances.

Caste system has been very significant problem in the Indian history. Due to the significant belief in the religious scripture, Dalits were considered to be the lowest caste and untouchables and mainly the inferior class of the society. They were denied their basic rights and were only assigned to inferior activities in the economic system, such as doing leather work, cleaning streets, removing the carcasses of dead animal and most of all were not allowed to get education. The civilized Hindu society segregated and prohibited such people from social activities and mainstream traditions.

Due to the caste system, Dalit were denied education and basic amenities and their history was mainly oral. Due to the restriction of education, Dalits do not have a written history. It was Dr. Bheem Rao Ambedkar stressed on the literary assertion to explain the world regarding the struggle of Dalits against caste system. Therefore, Dalit literature developed as a movement of the Dalits, who started writing powerful stories regarding their experience. Therefore, the poems, stories, biographies, novels, autobiographies, which were written by Dalit writers took the form of a new body of literature, which was called as “Dalit Literature”.

Dalit Literature is mainly considered as the Post-Independence literary phenomenon. The emergence of Dalit literature is mainly associated with the causes and effect of the very long struggle and oppression. Dalit Literature can be defined as “ one which acquaints people with the caste system and untouchability in India… It matures with a sociological point of view and is related to the principles of negativity, rebellion and loyalty to science , thus finally ending as revolutionary ”. The Dalit literature firstly evolved in Marathi language and was developed as the form of social awareness. Some of the early authors of Dalit literature from Maharashtra are “ Anna Bhau Sathe, Shankarrao Kharat, Baburao Bagul, Namdeo Dhasal, Raja Dhale, Daya Pawar, Waman Nimbalkar, Arjun Dangale, Yogiraj Waghmare ”.

Therefore, this new body of literature, took the form of the movement and the revolution that displayed the unseen reality of India, which was brutal inhuman and Maharashtra was at the forefront of this revolution, as most of the early Dalit writers, who were responsible for shaping the theoretical discourse of literature were from Maharashtra. When the Dalit Literature firstly appeared, it was rejected as the form of literature, because of the lack of theory in literature. Therefore, the Dalit authors focused on theorising the literature and developing a Dalit literary theory. Baburao Bagul’s work,  Dalit Sahityache Krantivigyan  (that could be translated as ‘Revolutionary Science of Dalit Literature’) was the first and most significant attempt made by the author to develop the Dalit literary theory.

According to the study of Jalote (n.d.) Dalit literary theory have the similarity with the subaltern literatures of Africa American literature. This theory can also be considered as indigenous and deeply rooted in the history, culture and politics of Dalits. Therefore, the theory gave a significant direction to Dalit Literature. Dalit literary theory was further broadened by Sharankumar Limbale through his autobiographical book autobiographical book, “ Akkarmashi”. The development of the literary theory is associated with the development of the literary objects in literature. Limbale’s theoretical formulation is mainly based on the ignorance of Brahminical agency, which also resulted in gaining the attention of the world-wide scholars. Dalit writers started writing about their identity, humanity and reclaiming their personhood. The Dalit writers started exploring the various genres and also the work of Limbal in his various books displayed a theoretical approach to explain the position, history and political status of Dalits. He also took reference from the Marxist, Black and Russian literature in order to illustrate the trajectories of Dalit experience.

The main theoretical aspects of the Dalit literature include, explanation of suffering, displaying rejection and rebellion, developing social commitment, denying God and soul, focusing on self-realization, advocating independence, equality and rights and opposing Brahminism and varna system. The Dalit literary theories are based on the various ideologies which also based on self-image and self-esteem. The literary theory developed through the political consciousness of the Dalits and also worked as the functional catalyst. The literary theory of the Dalit Literature is about shaping the identity of Dalits. Therefore, the question of identity is central to Dalit literature and Dalit literary theory, which enforces the dignified human life and equality and based their visionary transformation of the society towards forming the egalitarian social system.

In addition to built an identity, Dalit literature is also based on making an effort to gain international attention and to highlight the caste-based discrimination in international forums. Therefore, the development of the Dalit literary theory can be considered to be based on Racism and classicism that had been used by the authors to explain the oppression and traumatic condition of the African-Americans. Such examples have been used by the Dalit writers, which had resulted in ceasing the consideration towards Dalit as human beings. Therefore, it can also be said that Dalit literary theory has made the Dalit literature to be inevitable till the existence of discrimination and exploitation in the society. Therefore, some authors have also stated that Dalit literature has commenced as the literature associated with protest that focuses to incorporate a human race and to promote aesthetic justice. Dalit literature is not monotype, but theory literary theory it has evolved to promote secular values of liberty, equality, individuality and fraternity.

Dalit writers have used the Dalit literary criticism as the theoretical tool. Dalit ‘Chetna’ or Dalit consciousness, which has also become the emerging theory of the Dalit aesthetics. Therefore, the theory is based on the consciousness that has also worked as a revolutionary mentality connected with the oppression and struggle of Dalits. Dalit consciousness is unique, separate and different from the consciousness of other writers and this is the reason that Dalit literature is demarcated as unique because of this consciousness. Limbale has also stated that Dalit consciousness or Dalit Chetna is the most essential attribute of Dalit literature. One major aspect of Dalit Chetna is the is inclusion of the Buddha’s rational with this consciousness, which rejects the concept of God and soul and thus, rejects the hypocrisy created by Hindu culture and laws. This theory also promotes the development of caste-less and class-less society and displays the rejection of superiority, supremacy and feudalism.

While focussing on evolution and development of Dalit Literature and Dalit literary theory it can be concluded that Dalit literature has developed from the experience and struggle of the Dalits and Dalit writers; and scholars have focused on developing Dalit Consciousness. Dalit consciousness is also called as Dalit Chetna that enforces the consciousness of Dalit writers towards equality, equal treatment, and rejecting discrimination and inequality based on caste or class. The emergence and development of Dalit literature has been very significant for getting the attention of world towards the assertion of human dignity and justice.

Biswas, M. M. (2014). Theory of dalit literature.  Contemporary Voice of Dalit ,  7 (2), 235-246.

Brueck, L. R. (2006, February). Dalit chetna in Dalit literary criticism. In  Seminar  (Vol. 558).

Lal, S. (2017). Dalit Literature: AN Introspection Of Genesis And Growth. International

Refereed e-Journal of Literary Explorations, 5 (II), 65-70. Retrieved from: http://researchscholar.co.in/downloads/9-dr.-sohan-lal.pdf

Gajarawala, T. J. (2011). Some Time between Revisionist and Revolutionary: Unreading

History in Dalit Literature.  PMLA ,  126 (3), 575-591.

Jalote, S. R. (n.d.). Dalit Aesthetic Theory. An International & Refereed e-Journal in English,

1(1), 1-7. Retrieved from: http://www.thecreativelauncher.com/upload/jalote.pdf

Kumar, S. N. A. (2016). Indian Dalit Literature—A Reflection of Cultural Marginality.

International Journal of Languages, Literature and Linguistics, 2 (4), 209-212. Retrieved from: http://www.ijlll.org/vol2/97-SA1019.pdf

Mandavkar, P. (2015). Indian Dalit Literature Quest for Identity to Social Equality.  Humanities & Social Sciences Reviews ,  3 (2), 42-48.

Maitreya, Y. (2017). “A theory for Dalit literature: The importance of Sharankumar Limbale’s writings”. First Post. Retrieved from: https://www.firstpost.com/living/a-theory-for-dalit-literature-the-importance-of-sharankumar-limbales-writings-4217491.html

Pardeshi, J. D. (2016). Dalit literature: A Retrospective Vista. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 2 (2), 70-74. Retrieved from: http://www.epitomejournals.com/VolumeArticles/FullTextPDF/81_Research_Paper.pdf

Pawar, P. A. (2016). Dalit Literature: A Perspective. International Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 2 (2), 44-48. Retrieved from: http://www.epitomejournals.com/VolumeArticles/FullTextPDF/78_Research_Paper.pdf

Prasad, A. N., & Gaijan, M. B. (Eds.). (2007).  Dalit literature: a critical exploration . Sarup & Sons.

Aniruddha Vithal Babar , B.com, D.H.R.L., LLM (International Law and Human Rights), M.A. (Political Science with specialization in International Relations and Conflict Studies), Former Advocate; Bombay High Court and independent researcher with interdisciplinary temperament. He has respectable hold on political and Socio-legal philosophy and thought with research interests include International law, Tribal Jurisprudence (with special emphasis on the development of Naga Jurisprudence), Applied Politics, Idea of justice, Peace & Conflict Studies, Northeast Studies, Subaltern Studies and Human Rights. Presently he is pursuing his PhD in the interdisciplinary fields of Law, Governance and Conflict Management at SSLG, JAIPUR NATIONAL UNIVERSITY. He may be contacted at  [email protected]

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daiit literature - inflibnetshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/17193/11/11_chapter 4.pdf ·...

• Daiit Literature - INFLIBNETshodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/17193/11/11_chapter 4.pdf · Daiit Literature The Dalit movemen~ in Andhra was an autonomous struggle against

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Daiit Literature

The Dalit movemen~ in Andhra was an autonomous struggle

against the hegemonic ideology of the upper caste rulers, accompanied

by an enormous forceful literature. As an organic collective articulation,

Dalit literature has fresh expressive comprehension and distinct

intellectual vigour. Its distinctness "lies in its authentic unity of

language and content. In it the disillusionment and disgust of young

Dalits, often accompanied by a desire for revenge, come alive. h revives

the memory of the pain and suffering of the past generations." Further,

"it confronts centuries of hypocrisy, deceit and violence sustained in the

name of tradition". 1 The hegemonic caste ideology which debarred the

Dalits not only from all material possessions, but systematically stunted

their mental development. They were alienated and disapproved by the

social laws. Their historical socio-cultural position was dissimulated and

disfigured by caste as a task master.

Dalit literature carries this burden of suffering, agony and

humiliation. In addition it is encompassed by the profound objective of

emancipation of all oppressed masses. It is resolutely determined to

uncover the concealed contradictions of the hegemonic upper caste

ideology and make concerted efforts to create an alternative socio­

cultural identity.

Taken from A. Satyanarayana. "'Dalit Protest literature in Tclugu: A Historical perspective". Economic anti /'olitical Week(v (hencefonh HPif). 21 January 1995. (Cited in J.K. Lcle and R. Singh. "Language and litemture of Dalits and S<mts: Some Missed Opponunites").

Dalit literature has been subjected to an e:-~tensi•/e debar~ and

dtscussion as a stream of Telugu literature. The purpose of this cha:~·tt:~

is not to j:)in thai debate. Rather, it is to :'..nalyse Daiit iiteru~t.:r:..: <:::: ·'the

counter hegemoni~ ideology". The aim is to study the lit~tatun.: from the

soci<,Jogica! point of view and its social origin. The chapter is divided

into three sections. These deal, respectively, with the brief historical

antecedentS of Dalit literature, the non-Dalit writers' contribution to

Dalit consciousness in the mainstream Telugu literary trends and wiih a

random analysis of Dalit literature in Telugu produced by Dalit organic

intellectuals.

Historical Background

Dalit literature in Telugu has long historical antecedents on the

lines of the Dalit movement. 2 The numerous Buddhist inscriptions

reveal that the historical legacy of Dalit literature in Telugu may be

traced to the well-established Buddhist culture in Andhradesa. The

Buddhist anti-caste ideology, humanist principles of liberty, equality and

brotherhood were propagated through Pali literature which was against

the hegemonic Sanskrit language. J The Sufi poets who gave a call for

the abolition of all discrimination and inequalities from contemporary

society gathered all "men belonging to different castes and creeds

1l1ese historical antecedents for Mamthi Dalit litcmture arc different. Sec A. Dangle (cd.). Poisoned /Jread: Translations from A1odern A-farathi /)a/it Literature (Sangam Books. Bombay. I <Jn). pp. xi-xv; Eleanor Zelliot. From Untouchable to Da/it: f:.,:,·says on the Amheclkar Alovement (Manohar. New Delhi. 1996). pp. 267-317; Jayilshree Gokhitle. ..From Concessions to Confrontation: lltc Politics of an Indian Untouchable Community" (Popular P.rakashan. Bombay. I <J<J3 ). Chapter on litera111re.

K. Padrna Rao. Caste and Alternatil'e C "ulture (GL TC Research Institute. Madras. 1995), pp.85-'J(,.

speaking different languages, assembled in the YJtangahs. It was but

natural that a common language was evolved as a means of

communication."4 That language was Urdu. Urdu, thus, becmnc the

language of communication for the Sufi saints, against the hegemonic

Sanskrit and Persian literature which got royal patronage, to propagate

humanism and brotherhood, during the Muslim rule in the Deccan.

In the thirteenth century, Palkusiki Somanatha, under the

influence of Basava's Veerasaivism, denounced caste divisions and

explained in his poetical works, with scholarly disquisition, how

Brahminism and Brahmin priests extracted the wealth of the lower

castes in the name of sacrifices. 5 The Sudra poetess named Moll a,

daughter of a potter, wrote Mol/a Ramayanam in simple Telugu to make

it accessible to the common people. Tallapaka Annamayya, a Brahmin,

disapproved of the caste system in his kirlans or songs of devotion. He

sang that "the high level land of the Brahmin and the low flat level of

the Chandala are the same"; "there is no high and low, Srihari is the soul

The most powerful literary voice in modem Andhradesa against

upper caste hegemony was that of Vemana, a Sudra poet. Vemana chose

the literary path to fight social evils. He posed his insightful questions in

the form of literary stanzas (padyam) to counter the caste doctrine

spread by Sanskrit s/okas. Vemana asked the upper castes: "Why do

1 K. Salyanarayana. A Study of the llistoi·v and Culture of the Andhra. vol. 2 (People's Publishing House. New Delhi). pp. 514-S.

A. V.K. Moorthi. Social and 1-..'conomic Condition.,· in Fastern India (From A.!>. 1000 to A.IJ 1250), (Kabir Prinling Works. Secundmbad. I '.170), p. H.

t. Padma Rao. p. Ill.

you again and again abuse a par~iah? Are not his blood ~tnd flesh aud

thine one? Of what ~aste is He who is immingled with himT7

cx.horted the uppt::· casie:;:

Urvivarikel/a nokka kanchamuhelli, poththugudipi,

kulamu paaliyajesi, ralam1 cheyyihelli iaganammna

(Let everyone eat from the same plate, place their hands

on their heads and become friends. )8

V~'s stanzas were apparently a spontaneous reflection on the social

reality disparaging the upper caste rulers and becoming passionate!y

cherished aphorisms for the lower castes. Vemana is said to have uttered

hundreds of stanzas. One hundred stanzas among these have been

published in an anthology entitled Vemana Satakam ( 100 Verses of

Vemana). The work is considered to be the first Telugu text.

Veerab!:_.amham 's teachings also became the historical inspiration

for the present Dalit organic intellectuals.') The Christian Literature

Society in Andhra published considerable literature in both English and

Telugu for the benefit of the newly converted lower castes. Among the

books were: Enlightened Teachingsfrom the Book of Truth (1747), Way

to Heaven (1746); 100 Wisdom Principles (1747) ; Book of the J,aw

(I 818). These and many other collections of hymns, pamphlets and

Satyanamyana. p. 4112.

" Padma Rao. p. 112. For a critical evaluation of Vcmana. sec idem. San~hikala l'iphave Rachayitalu: /)a/ita Sahi~va l'imarsha, l.okvata l'uh!ishers, l'onnur /995 (felu~u).

'} Sat~'anarJyna, op. cit.

brochures were widely circulated, which directly or indirectly helped the

emergence of Dalit literature and consciousness. 10

The present Dalit literature also claims iuspiratior. from Mahatma

Jyotiba Phuie's Satya Shodak Samaj movement Phule's numerol!s

works or. education, cu~ture, history and literature be~ame the

fountainhead of thought for Dalit organic intellectuals. Phule's scholarly

cardinal works, Gulgmgiri. ( 1873) and Sarvajanik Sa~J'a Dharma Pustak

( 1891) have been recognized as sources of the early organic sociological

power of knowledge. 11 The most influential Dalit organic thinker,

Ambedkar, has been the moving force for the Dalit literary movement in

Andhra. The elaborate body of his socio-economic and politico-cultural

ideas have been the guiding force and catalyzing every Dalit.

Ambedkarism has been regarded as an avant grade Dalit political and

literary movement in Andhra Pradesh. Am~'s works such as: 111e

Untouchables, Who Were the Sudras, The Buddha and His Dharma,

What Congress and Gandhi Have Done to the Untouchable.\·!, Castes in

India, Annihila(ion of Caste have become the basic frame of reference

for the present Dalit organic intellectuals.

The pioneers of early Dalit movement in Andhra also started

propaganda-cum-literary magazines to disseminate their ideas. Among

these were: Bhagyanagar, Ku.mma Dharmanna, Jaya Bheri (all started

by Bhagya Reddy Verma), Navajeevan, Vemula Kuri1Jlliah, Vyavasaya

Kooli (all started by B.S. Murthi), Jyothi (Bojja Appala Swamy), ,

Republican Jyothi (B. V. Ramanaiah), Bhagyanagar (Govada

111 Sec, B. Vijaya Bhamti. Nalupu. 1-30 April 1990. 11 Gail Omvedt. Dalits and Democratic Revolution: /Jr. Amhedkar and the /)a/it

Movement in Colonia/India (Sage Publications. New Delhi). p. 99.

Nirekrishna Rao). Their speeches, essays and poems became part ot an

altemativ~ ideolcgical struggle against the hegemoni~ ideologies of both

colonialism and Hinduism. !l

The Dalit Sahitya Moverr.ent m Maharashtnt produced a.11

enormous amount of revoli.1tionary Dalit literature. The first Dalit

literary conference was held in 1958, which passed a resolution defining

the term 'Dalit literature'. In 1967 the Milind Sabitya Parishad was

established at Nagsenvana, Aurangabad. Under its auspices a quarterly

known as Asmita (later it became Asmithadarsha) was published. 13

These writers started a movement giving expression to their own

independent identity. They declared war on the omnipresent and

gigantic enemy of caste through the medium of literature. 14 Thus the

pre~ent Dalit literature in Telugu took much of its inspiration from

different sources.

Telugu Literary Trends and Dalit Problem

Telugu is the most Sanskritized language among th~ southern

languages. Though it does not belong to the Devanagari family of

northern languages it heavily borrows usage from Sanskrit texts.

Starting from Nannaya (twelfth century) to the present generation, the

traditional intellectuals have not created any original text in Telugu. 15

All available major texts in Telugu were either translated from Sanskrit

1 ~ B. Tamkam, The First All India IJalit ll"riters Conference: A commemorati1•e /'o/ume (Dr. B.R. Ambcdkar Memorial Tmst. Hyderc~bad. I '.1!!7). p. 54

u K. Gangawanc. ibid .. p. 17. 14 For the full history of Dalit litcralure sec Day a Pawar's article in ibid .. pp. 7-1 o 1\ Sec Kalckari Pmsad. lJalita Sahityam (Vijayavada. Dalila Women Sahitya

Parishad) Tclugu.

or were analogous creations directly from Sanskrit texts. All these early

literary constructions and expressions were mostly the handiwork of the

upper castes. TI1e social problem of caste oppression, social alienation of

Dalits and tmtouchability were not reflected in them; in fact they helped

to perpetuate caste dominance. That explains why the nineteenth-century

social reformers directed their anger against Sanskritized Telugu in

addition to devoting attention to socio-cultural reforms. It was Vemana

who carefully studied social oppression and first raised his voice against

the caste system.

The socio-cultural problems of Andhra society were reflected in

some of the reformist literature in Telugu. The pioneers of social reform

movement in Andhra, Kanduku~ VeereshaJingam ( 1848-1919), 9w;ajada

Appa Rao, Laxminarasimham ( 1848-1945) and Gidl!gu Ramamurthy

worked for the reformation of orthodo~ practices. They advocated

women's education and widow remarriage. They also expressed

sympathy for the untouchables. Vl!ereshalingam started schools for the

Dalits and other working classes. Gurujada Appa Rao criticized the

segregation of the Dalits on the basis of their menial occupations. He

said: "Filthy occupations have been assigned to some people, looking

down upon them and not even treating them as human beings."H'

In 1911 Appa Rao wrote a song on Malas entitled 'Malalu' in

which he lamented

1" Padma Rao. San~hika l'iplana Rachavitalu: /)a/ita Sahi~va Vimarsha (Lokayata

Publishers, Ponnuru. 1995). p. (,l

Judging people with an unclean body as Mal&s. t~.nd

' rewarding unethical people as upper caste in not at all fair.

The law ca!icd caste is an unjustified in•!lnsition. . .

And further

Human beings have two castes, good and bad. lf good is 17 Mala, I would be Mala.

However these reformers' main objective was to reform certain

evils of the Hindu social system and "they failed to grapple with the

ideological and institutional framework of brahminical Hinduism. Their

reading of classical texts and scriptures was only aimed at reforming

some aspects of Hindu society, but not to question and negate the Varna

system itself. . . . Neither 'Kan)!a.m/kam' (bride-price) nor 'Raja

Sekhara Charitram' written by Appa Rao and Veereshaligam

respectively, addressed the basic fundamental problems of caste

oppression and alienation of Dalit masses from the mainstream society." Ill

During the anti-colonial struggle many non-Dalit intellectuals

made remarkable efforts to absorb all those masses who were socially

and politically alienated, into the broad terrain of the anti-colonial

struggle. Most of them were immensely influenced by the growing

nationalist aspirations and the Gandhian 'Harijan uplift programme'.

They projected the Dalit problem in their literary creations from

different angles. Basavaraju Appa Rao wrote songs on the atrocities

1" S. V. Satyanamyana (cd.). Jashuma Sahilt!(' l'rashanam (Vishalandhra Publishing

House. Hydcntbad). p. 107 (Tclugu)

inflicted on Dalits. Among the others who dealt with the Daiit problem

were Mutnuri Krishna Rao, Kamaraju Hanumantha Rao. Tapi Dhanna

Rao, Vemuri Ramji Rao, Adipudi Somanatha Rao and Band~n1

Achchamamba.

Tallapragada Suryanarayana Rao's Helavali was !he first Telugu

Dalit novel written by a non-Dalit in 1913. Helavati, the protagonist of

the novel, was the daughter of Verabaludu, an untouchable. As a

socially alienated family they lived in penury and collected grains from

the ponidge given to cattle. Helavati blames the caste-ridden society for

their miserable plight. She refuses to many an untouchable on the

ground that she does not want to continue as an untouchable by

marrying an untouchable. Once when Emperor Humayun was in trouble,

Verabaludu renders him help. The emperor rewards him with costly

gifts and money, thus enriching Verabaludu's family. But Helavati is

still unmanied. At last she marries the son of a minister of the emperor.

Yerabaludu changes his religion and becomes Chan Mohammad. The

social message of this novel was that if Hindus did not change their

attitude towards the Dalits the latter would not continue as Hindus any

more. 19 Venkata Parawatisha Kavulu 's novel Maim Mandiram ( 1919)

also had some critique on the caste system.

Unnava Laxmi_narayana's Mala Palli (Mala Hamlet, 1922) was

extensively debated and discussed. The author was considerably

influenced by the Gandhian Efonn......movement and championed the

rights of the working class. In this novel he depicted "the Dalits'

realization of their socio-economic problems in the wake of broader

19 Kalckuri Prasad. op. cit.

national struggle under the leadership of Gandhi."20 Although sor11c of

his idr.as differed fundamentally from the Dalit point of view-notably

those of pacifism, re!igio~ity, pas:;i·.·eness- ---his c;-i;ique of iht ,:;tt u~iured

social relations and collectivism elicited wide acclaim. Summarizing the

implications of tl1e novel Haragopal ~ays tJ&at "The main reason

presented for the absence of class consciousness is the hegemony of the

Hindu world-view conditioning the consciousness of the Harijans. This

prevents them from revolting .... This indicates not only the structural

constraints in which the poor Harijans were looked upon but the

cobwebs of consciousness which permitted them little concerted and . d . ,21 orgamze actton.

N.G. Ranga's Harijan Nayakudu (Harijan Leader, 1933)

projected the Dalit problem from the point of view of the p~asantr}J and

agricultural labour. The hero was a Dalit who "agitates on various

issues, opposing the violence against and abuse of Dalits, organizing

inter-caste marriages, establishing schools, fighting for entry into the

temples and use of public wells."22 Adavi Bapirju's Narudu ( 1946)

depicted the problem of caste prejudice, oppression and Dalit protest at

all levels. The hero of Nan1du, a young Dalit born amidst abject poverty

and social neglect, overcomes his disabilities, goes abroad for higher

studies and marries an Anglo-Indian girl. Another novel of note is

Adarsham (1946) by Anantati Narasmharn.

~" Omvcdl. p.ll 6.

~I Ibid., p.l 17.

Mangipudi Venkata Sl1anna 's Nirudda Bharatam ( 1915) was the

first anthology l)f poem~ on Dalits by non-Dalits. The !it st ~art of the

anthology was uevoted to the socio-economic conditions of the O;;!it~

aud appealed 1.0 the u~per castes to treat the Dalits as huma.'l beings. The

second part appealed to the Panchamas to realize their sufferings which

were brought about by the caste system rather than by mysterious fate. 23

Cherukuvada Damogipurapu Janta Kavulu's song to the effect that

"overlooking the Dalits is not justifiable", was published in 192 I.

Nelluri Venkata Ramanaidu's song 'Harijanulu' with a similar theme

was published in I 928. Kondapalli Jagannatha Rao, Tirunagari

Venkatasuri, Kambhampati Laximinarasinha Somayajulu, Basavaraju

Appa Rao, Puripanda Appala Swami, Karuna Sri also deplored the

problems of the Dalits in their writings. 24 One play that effectively

contrasted the hegemonic upper caste ideology with the Dalit bahujan

point of view was Tripuraneni Ramaswamy Chowdary's 'Shambuka

Vadha' (1922). Chowdary (1887-1943) was a father figure of the non­

Brahmin movement and a literary doyen from the Sudra community.

Gudapalli Rama Brahma's film Mala l1illa (Mala Girl) also depicted the

Dalit problems. A. V. Neelakanta Sastri 's play Harijanudu ( 1935) was

another non-Dalit contribution to Dalit consciousness.

The main criticism about non-Dalit writings on the Dalits' plight

has been that "the aspirations and emotional feelings of the Dalit masses

were not adequately taken cognizance of by the middle class

intellectuals, who were predominantly drawn from the upper castes. "25

~3 Vijaya BharJti. op. cit.

~4 Satyanardyana. p. 107.

·~ s . • atyammtyana. op. ell.

In the post-independence period, some of the notabic nun-Dalit wfitings

on the theme were: lllandula Ranganayakulu's Mdlika (1950). Vatti

Koia Aiwar Sw~11ny's J>!·aj~la A-funisfu ( 1950), Muppal:i

Ranganayakaml_!li.L lJJllipet:larn ( 1962), Kalipatnam Rama Rao 's

Yagnam ( 1964 ), M~hendra Ramamohan Rao · s Kolla_igatti!enemi (! 965),

Malladi Vasunda's irivarna Patakarn (!965), Vachaspat.'U's

Antahkalahalu ( 1965), Dasharathi Rangacharya 's Chi/lara Devundlu

( 1970) and Antaranijanla ( 1973), Shiva Reddy's three novels, Banisalu

(1971), Incredible Goddess (1974) and Swashanarn Dunneru (1974),

Ellandu Saraswathi De vi's Neehanchan Kalrnokkuta ( 1977), Tenneti

Hemalata 's Miss Kokila ( 1978), Yerramchetti Sai's Akari Mazili ( 1978).

Kethu Yiswanatha Reddy's Veerlu ( 1978), Vani's Mohanagaram

( 1979), K. Ramalaxmi 's Kotixadu ( 1980), Dasharathi 's Cheekati

Bedirindi, J.Rama Laxmi's 7'apohanxam, A. KutumbaRao's Sorojyam

( 1984), N.R.Nandi 's Nyrnisharanyam ( 1984), Bupathi Rama Rao 's

Kulakanya, and Dadala Chantabhai 's Antuleni Amava.\ya. 2~> Kalipatnam

Rama Rao's Yagnam (1964), revolving around a dispute over a loan

taken by a Mala family of Appalaramudu from a petty money lender of

the village, "was the best critique of the Nehruvian phase from the point

of view of the agrarian poor. Driven to destitution, within the agrarian

system and without alternative employment in industry, they

accumulated in members, without becoming partners in development,

and became the marginalized resultants, in spite of their efforts and

'II .. 27 WI .

~h Compiled from S. V. Satyanarayana, "Tclugulo Dalita Sahityam·· in Aclunika Sahityam: IJalita Spruha (Yuva Bharc~ti. Hyderabad): Kalekuri Prasad op. cit. and Vijaya BharJti. op. cit.

:1 R.S. Rao, 7irwarcl~ l!nclerstanclin}! Semi Feudal Semi Colonial Society

(Perspectives. Hydcrc~bad. I'JIJ5). p. 136.

Mainstream Telugu literature witnessed another literary trend

during the forties called Ahyudaya Sahitvam or progressive literature, in

prote~t against the prevale11! romanticism, idealism and traditional

individualism. The writings of this school aiso reflected on the giobal

problems of the economic depression of the thirties 311d the fascist

aggression in Europe. They idealized communism and propagated the

communist utopia of world revolution. The writers of this school fomted

an organization called Abyudaya Rachayitala Sangham or Progressive

Writers Association (PW A). The pioneer of this movement was

Srirangam Srinivasa Rao (popularly known as Sri Sri), whose eloquent

poems influenced the youth to a remarkable degree and do so even '

today. Sri Sri's Maha Prasthanam (Great Presentation, 1950), was an

anthology of poems which basically centered around cia~ struggle.2M

An offshoot of the progressive writers school was 'Dehanxara

Kavitwam' or nude poetry, which sneered at established literary

traditions and advocated writing of a crude fonn. They resorted to

unconventional practices such as having their anthologies of poems

released by a rickshaw puller or a prostitute at midnight in Hyderabad.

Charabanda Raju, Nagnamuni and Nikhileswar belonged to this stream.

One anthology of poems from this school was dedicated to

Kanchikacherla Koteshu, a Dalit boy who was burnt alive by the upper

castes in Krishna district in 1968.

The outbreak of Naxalbari and Srikakulam movements witnessed

the emergence of the most powerful revolutionary literary movement in

=• For a critical evaluation of Sri Sri sec. Padma Rao. Sanghika I 'iplava Rachavita/ ( nNS ).

Telugu called 'Viplava Sahityam' or revolutionary poetry. TI1is

movement was known by its organization called Vip!ava Rachayita/a

Sangham or Rev,1lutionary Writers Association ( R \VA}. Many highly

talented revolutionary writers fonned its core, producing a wide range of

Marxist literature, which, however, is beyond the scope of the present

study. The basic criticism about these writers made by Dalit organic

intellectuals was that they did not take note of caste and its impact on

the self-respect of Dalits. Their focus on the socio-economic problems

of the working class did not direct them to create an alternative

hegemonic caste ideology and they were not able to answer Dalit and

feminist issues. l<J Other cultural-cum-literary organizations like jan a

Natya Mandali (JNM), Arunodaya, Navodaya and Janasahiti, and

journals like Aruna Tara, Ahyudaya and Sn~jana all played an important

role in propagating pro-Dalit literature.

Dalit Literature

Dalit literature basically is a 'counter hegemonic ideology'

created by 'Dalit organic intellectuals'. The ideas which they have

developed reflects their own social consciousness detennined by their

structured social existence which has hitherto remained neglected. Dalit

organic intellectuals thus come from a most exploited class and caste

origin. They necessarily share a common critical attitude towards the

hegemo~ic _upper caste ideology. In search of their new socio-cultural

identity and distinctness they developed their own communication

system with their own historical symbols and literary concepts.·,,, whir.M

created an actvanced necessary self-awareness ~md conscio•tsne~~ for an

illit•lded action. Daii! !itr.rature as a "comtter h~_:;ell!of!.ic ideulogy" is

ultimately tclatcc! to action a.1d is capable of organizing Da!its as agents

of new democratic revolution. It is able tc: tnmslate iiself into a specific

orientation of Dalit revolutionary pract!ce. Dalit !iteiature has been

considered here in the Gramscian view of a positive "organic ideology,

whkh has a psychological validity and which organizes human masses

and created th~ terrain on which men move, acquire consciousness of

h . . . I , 11 t e•r pos1tton, strugg e, etc. ·

Dalit organic intellectuals m Andhra Pradesh have evolved

broadly in tlnc? stages.

• In the first slaf!.e, Ambedkar' ~ ?~!i-c~c;te thought/ideology was not

fully developed in Andhra. Dalit organic intellectuals were then in

a stage of making appeals, but they differed from non-Dalit writers

who advocated integration. They had developed a critical view

about Hindu social hierarchy.

• In the second Slaf!.e, Ambedkarism was fully received into their

literature. Their argument centred around uncritical acceptance of

Ambedkar's philosophy as the base for the counter-hegemonic

·1" Taken from U. Bhole and A. Bhole. ·The Dalit Sahitya Movement in

Maharashtnt: A Sociological Analysis''. Sociological /Julletin. ,·ol. 2(•. no.l. March 1977.

·11 A. Grc~msci. Selections from the /'rison 1\"ote /looks (Orient Longman. Madras.

19%). p. 377.

• In the third anJ present slaKe. Dalit intellectuais have emtrged

with a Marxist perspective, analysing Hindu/Indian society o:1 the

basis of hisiorical matenalism alon,g with Ambcdkai's C!iste

annihilation theory. Th:s new synthesis of Marxism-Ambedka1is:n

was aimed at the successful accomplishment of a new democratic

revolution in India.

In all the three stages, however, Dalit organic intellectuals have been

collectively committed to reconstructing counter-hegemonic ideology

through their literary and artistic creations consisting of poems, songs,

essays, speeches, novels, short stories, plays, autobiographical notes and

literary criticism.

An attempt has been made here to analyse available literature of

the organic intellectuals. The definition of organic intellectuals is not

:onfined to Dalits alone but has been extended to the minority and OBC

intellectuals also, because much of the Dalit literature was created in

combination with them.

Early Dalit intellectuals' creative expressiOns were mainly

centred around the themes of equal treatment, self-respect, dignified

living. While exposmg caste exploitation and discrimination they

asserted their identity as 'Panch am as' and 'Adi-Hindus'. Their

consciousness was reflected in pleading for recognition of the nature of

their existence. Mahakavi Gurram Jashuva ( 1895-1971) was the first

compelling organic Dalit voice in Telugu literature, who exposed the

hypocrisy of caste ideology. Jashuva was a great creative poet, but his

creative genius and literary talent was not fully recognized. He was

humiliated, subjected to an intense mental agony and treated as a literary

outcaste by the scholarly world that was dom~naierl b" the upper

.:-astes."12 Reacting to his humiliations he conunenteL:

/,ll those crack-brained crovvs, their prejudice, s!ancler,

cant take away my well-endowed faculty. l will bang the

hell~ of verse, I will shower the pellets. I will chasten the

crackles of Andhra voice:'·'

He declared in addition:

I intend to pierce through caste distinction, poverty and

prove that lam a human being. I wield a sword. My sword . l4 IS my poetry."

Jashuva's literary output was prolific, including poetry, short

stories and plays in more than thirty works reflecting on different issues

of history, society, economy and political upheavals of his time.

Basically a humanist, Jashuva was against all inequalities. Whoever

fought inhuman traditions, inequalities and social evils, were seen by

Jashuva as liberators, irrespective of caste, class, colour and ideology.

His works are marked by this impartiality and rationality. Jashuva wrote

poems praising Gandhi for his campaign for the untouchables' temple

entry and uplift programmes. He also celebrated Subhas Chandra Bose's

heroic role in the national struggle. Jashuva also recognized the

autonomous struggle waged by Ambedkar for the emancipation of

1: Satyanar.tyana. op. cit.

11 Gumn. Jashuva. Naa 1\at/w (Jashuva Foundation. Vijayawada. JIJW,). p.l52 (Translated by the res~lrchcr).

II s . atyanar.tyana. op. c11.

Oalits. He asked his messenger, the Bat, whether nc hwi

Ambedkar's bl.r.ssings:

Ambedk:rr my brother is iht1e. wilo :'iuffen:d, W(iS

·;ictim:zed immensely for my comtntmity, but secureo the

highc~t position, as £rea~ l1S the Vicemy. Doe!: he weicnmc

you with a bouquet? Hi!: blessings are a must for your • 35 VICtory.

nf'r c,;t···

(Jab.hilan1(The Bat}, Jasjuwa 's magnum opus, rocked the whole

Telugu literary world when it was published in ]..241. Telugu ~tterateurs

were until then engrossed in romanticism, without any serious social

concern. Gabbilan, an anthology of poems, dealt with almost all socio-- - -- ·---- -----------·-- ------------

economic and political issues of Dalits. Each poem reflected their

agony, their despair and their anger. Each poem realistically presented

the bitter daily experiences of the Dalit masses, their disgust and misery.

As Tarakam summarizes, "The entire theme is the remorseful life as an

untouchable. The language, the expression, the idiom and the style are

very powerful and near to life. The depiction was very piercing.".16 The

openmg poem says:

Pleased with miles of penance inconsiderates All penury

just with little of morsel Unconnected to four divisions

Fifth born son of Mothe!' Bharat.l7

" G. Jashuva. Gahhilam (Jashuva Foundation. Vijayawada. 1996 ). p. 4X (Translated by the researcher) .

. •h Tarakarn. op. cit.

J' Jashuva, Gahhilam. p. 9. (Translated by the researcher)

Reflecting on the economic exploitation of Dalits :md ~cw they

had been mercilessly alienated from their own product!ur: by !!1c :;.ppe:·

caste rulers, he iamented:

When his (Oalit's) hands de not work. The green fields

hesitate tc yield Ctops. He swears, provides food fo:- tile . 38

world. But he himself has no food:

Jashuva expressed his disillusionment with Hindu social life and

questioned its wisdom which treated Dalits as less than human beings.

He mercilessly exposed the hegemonic caste ideology and its hypocrisy.

Tied my mouth with Kanna doctrine

Means follows are making men·y' ::~.t the cost of my life,

Ask Eswar (God): reveal the truth about

What is meant by Karma and why it has a rudge against 39 me.

Further he explained how Hinduism was responsible for the

perpetuation of caste oppression. Alienating Dalits from the mainstream

society, squeezing them from all sides the upper castes regarded the

Dalit's shadow itself as an offence. Jashuva asked the Dalits to be

cautious about the four-hooded Hindu cobra that might attack them at

any moment. He wrote:

By swallowing the blood of the wretched (Dalit)

~~ Taken from Satyanamyana, op. cit.

w Jashuva, Gabhi/am, p. 14.

Lives the iron ankle~ed Mother

Upon smelling thr air hisses with vengeance

T!~e four-hooded :1indus cobra. 40

Naak,EJba ( 1966), Jashuva' s auto~iography, revealed the Dalit

poet whose integdty amLhonesty brought him hardship. It expressivdy

retlected the real Dalit' s inner experiences of pain and anguish and

illustrated the oppressive caste social order to which Dalits were

Jashuva's contemporaries, Jala Ranga Swamy, Kusuma

Dharmanra, Nakka China Vankaiah, Nutakka, Ab~aham were some

other organic intellectuals who exposed caste discrimination and its

dominance. Jala Ranga Swamy wrote the first Dalit novel Rytu J>illa

(Farmer's Daughter, 1938)41 The heroine Seeta, daughter of Ventanna

an upper caste farmer, is progressive in her understanding of social

relations, revolts against traditions and boldly comes forward to mar:·y

Sri Ramudu, an untouchable farm servant at her father's house. In his

long poem 'Who Are the Untouchables' ( 1930), Rangaswamy

questioned the upper caste hegemony:

Some occupations were created and assigned to us

We were named as serfs

Caste discrimination was introduced,

We were uppressed

·'" Taken from Satyanarayana. op. cit.

.u Jayadhir Timmala Rao. A review aniclc appeared in I ·aarta (Tclugu daily, Hyderabad). (,April I'J%.

Wr were troubled with slavery/trodden

Occupational difference · were impo~ed, We w.-~r;,~

I. d 42 a :enate .

In Meluko!upu (Awaken, 1930) and Mala Sud hi (Cieaning Mal as,

1930) Jala Ranga Swamy criticized all hypocritical, pseudc-Gandhian

upper caste activists who worked for the uplift of untouchables.43 In his

writings Dalit identity was symbolized as the Pancharnas. He projected

the Dalit historical figures of Arundhathi, Matangis, Sabri as Dalit

. h A 44 women agamst t e ryans.

Kusum~rmanna, while orgamzmg Dalits for the nationai

movement also asked the Dalits to prepare for their own liberation

struggle from the native hegemonic upper caste rulers. He started a

propaganda-cum-literary magazine called Jayg_jlari. He was said to be

"a powerful speaker, writer and organizer".45 Dhannanna was known for

his spontaneous satires on upper caste rulers in which the Dalits'

identity was asserted. He noted that the Dalits' participation in the

freedom struggle was marginalized due to their immediate socio­

economic constraints. The upper caste leadership also failed to evolve a

systematic programme to ensure their socio-economic emancipation and

"the aspirations and emotional feelings of the Dalit masses did not

4: Sayanarayana, op. cit.

4' K. llaiah. Caste or class or caste-class: A stutlv in /)a/it Hahujan consciousness

and struKJ!Ie in Andhra /'ratlesh in the /IJ.'IOs (Nehm Memorial Museum and Libmry, New Delhi. 1995).

become an integral part of the nationalist ideology and pwgmmmr" .;~,

Thus, the Dalits' twofold struggle. against the imperial British and tl:~

hcgerr.onic upper caste native m!er. was reflecied in their ide,)iogi::c:l

expression. Dharmanna wrote a controversial song '}Auakoddee Na!ia

Dot'!!.!!!!EJ!.l' (We do not want this black landlordship) as a counter to the

~ong by Garimella Satyanarayana, an upper caste nationalist ieadcr,

entitled 'Maakoddee Tel/a DoraJJmam' (We do not want this while

rule). Portraying the pathetic Jiving conditions of Dalit masses in this

song Dharmanna wrote:

(We have) only small huts outside the village

We do not have big houses

Air, light do not trifle

(We have) no delicious food cuny

To wear (we have) no saree, loincloth

(We have) no tail ornaments

(We have) no land to plough, eat food

(You have) no sympathy on our poverty.47

Despite twelve months of bonded labour

We live with hunger wife has to labour,

Son has to graze the animals.

Despite all our drudgery, V.'e are deficient of food and clothes

Debts are undone, God, they starved us mercilessly

~ .. Sat~·anamyana. op. cit. 47

We do not want this black lordship

Sir! God! We do not want this black lordship

God, we have no equal treatment in this society

We do not want this black lordship 411

Nakka Chinna Venkaia, in his Harijana Kirtana/u (Harijan

Hymans, 1935), pleaded with the upper castes to forgo caste

distinctions:

Why they not forgo untouchability

Why they have dispute on it

Why they not forgo untouchability:~'}

He asked the upper castes to treat the Dalits as fellow human

beings and cease their persecution. This tone of plea also marked the

writings of Nutakki Abraham, Premaiah. Gnanandakavi, Chodagiri

Chandra Vajrapu, Samba Murthy and Athota Ratna Kavi. 50

Boyee Bheemanna (b. 191 I) reached the highest pinnacle of \

Telugu literature. He wrote nearly sixf¥_Piays, stories, novels and essays

which reflected on the socio-economic, historical and cultural aspects of

the Dalits. Two of Bheemanna's plays, Coolie Raja (Labourer King.

1942) and Pa!gu (Fann Servant, 1946) mirrored the problems closely

affecting the Dalits. Coolie Raja was about the struggle of Dalits for

economic justice. The play was performed in every village of coastal

~- Vijaya Bhamti. op. cil (Translated by the researcher).

~·~ Satyanamyana, Teluj!ulo /)a/ito .\'ahitvam.

"' Tamkam. op. cit.

Andhra, sometimes more than a dozen times. 51 The hero Nishkalavecr of

the play says that t!very labourer's heart is flaring up. it would bern ur

any time. The play, written on the lines of caste-class struggle creiite(;

'rcmendous consciousness among Daiits ar:d other working classes.

Because of i!s revolting content, inflammatory language against tlte

upper castes and the British government the play was banned by the

B .. h 52 ntrs government.

Palern projected the problem of Dalit bonded labour. The hero

Venkanna is a victim of the system of hereditary bonded labour.

Different from all previous fann servants, Venkanna wants to put an end

to bonded labour as such. His solution is to educate himself and change

his occupation. With the help of a school teacher and an upper caste girl.

he escapes from bonded labour and joins the Brahmo Samaj, where he is

given the opportunity to study. Venkanna secures B.A. degree and

becomes deputy collector. The play "is an urge for social equality and

the acquisition of knowledge and education by Dalit masses for a decent

living as well as for a respectable place in society. In it there is a

suggestion that through education and inter-caste marriage social

mobility is possible. The author opined that the problems of Dalits is not

only that of class .... Hence Dalits should be educated first and obtain

good official positions. "5·'

Rauvri Ekambaram is another poet and organizer who moved

long with Ambedkar in Andhra and together with him addressed many

'~ Tarakam 's article in Ganmnala Gnancswar ( cd. ). Huiee /lheemanna .\'ahilee Shastipurthi Sanchika.

'1 s . · atyanamyana, op.cll.

public meetings. Ekampram has written many poems and songs on

Dalits depicting their hatred, agony and future hope. His an::hoiogv of

poems on Ambedkar, Amhedkq_ta Samara_ Simha (Ambedkar the warrior

Jim1) created tremendous consciousness in Andhra about Amhedkar's

personality and his revolutionary ideas. His Ambedkqr Ramayanamu,

Am!Jedkar Bharatam and anthology of poems are still the most pcpular 54 songs on Ambedkar.

Endluri Chinrraia's A!!llledkar 's Life History has been the m!lst

forcefui :.•1ei highly influential political propaganda document on

Ambedkar in Telugu. Vizaya Bharati, _daughter _of Boy Bheemanna and

wife of Bo_ija Tarak~, the _first Da!i! WOil13.Jl Jq_g~t a doctorate in f.f!dhra

Pr~desh, translated many of Ambedkar's works into Telugu. Her

translations into Telugu of Amhedkar: L!fe and Mission and Mahatma

Phule's life history, both by Dananjaj Kheer, have inculcated a dynamic

political consciousness and heightened the Dalits' perception of

Ambedkar in Telugu country. These books have been widely read and

have been responsible for the widely promoted Ambedkar cultural and

youth organizations in Andhra Pradesh. Modukuci--:h:>hndon 's play

Nichehana Metlu (Laughter) also played a significant role in building an

I . h . 'd I 55 a temat1ve egemomc 1 eo ogy.

The counter-hegemonic ideology was also propagated through

many media of expression by Dalit organic intellectuals. Saik~r

( 1920-97), an OBC Muslim, adopted and ~r.ri~!1:!d a folk fonn of story­

telling called Burrakatha for his mass communication. Burrakaktha is

q Interview with Gancswar, 21 January 1997.

H Vijaya Bhamthi. op. cit.

simple and colloquial, and totally different both in fonn and content

from the highly Sanskritized Harikatha, which is maialy nsed by the

upp~r cast.::>. Suddaia Hanumanthu was another singer and lyricist

whuse poems on Petti exploitation and the heroic role of the

Communists during the Telengana movement have become the main

source of cultural movernent.56 Both Nazer and Hanumanthu played a

significant role during the Telengana struggle.

Unlike Marath~ Dalit literature, Andhra Dalit organic intellectuais

were profoundly influenced by the Ambedkarite movement, Marxist­

Leninist movement, Naxalbari and Srikakulam and the Dalit Panthers --- --- -- --- --Movement in Maharastra. This remarkable change may be noticed in the)

Dalit literature from the seventies onwards. K.G atyamurty, who is

popularly known by his pen name 'Shiva gar' is a rebel, and a leader

of peasants and proletariat. Some of his poems, 'Gong Bells' ( 1969),

'Narudo! Bhaskaruda!' ( 1970), 'llclyamam Nelahaludu' ( 1971 ), 'Sister

Chandramma' (1971) have been classics of Naxalbari movement. In

'Udyamam Nelahaludu' (1971) he labelled himself thus:

I am Naxalbari!

I am Mushahari!

I am Srikakulam!

Renegade! I am Revolution

I am the man who sprouted

from the blood flood of those martyrs! 57

1" II . h . ma . op. ctt.

1• Shiva Sagar, Uclayamam Nalahaludu (an anthology of poems). (Srujana

Pmcharanalu, Hanumakonda. 19M3), p. 49 (Tmnslatcd by the researcher).

'Shiva Sagar' has been the bridge between the Progressive

writers of the f~ and the Revolutionary writers of the sev.IM1'(ies,

roatinuing the ongoing Dalit democra,t.ft revolution. As a revolutionary

he sounded his revolutionary 'Gong bells' as early as the seventies, to

unite all working classes. This poem reveals:

Workers, Fanners,

Weavers, Labourers

Hamali, Kalasi,

Kammari, Kummari,

Oppressed, Suppressed

March on! March on!

Bang the Gong bells

trot out! trot!!

5R Move on! Move on!

'Shiva Sagar's' 'Chelli! Chandramma' poem became the

symbolic representation of thousands of Dalit women who have silently

borne the suppression by the hegemonic caste oppressors. It was a

glowing tribute to all those Dalit women who were harassed and

tormented by the landlords. His other poems, 'Nantdol Hhaskantda!'

and '0! Vilukada!' (0! Bowman!, 1973) both have documented the

\" Ibid .. p. H (translated by the researcher).

course of revolutionary struggle. Despite State repression, the movement

survived and continues, he says. The bullet hit ou;y the thigh, which

cfipplcfi movement, but not thP. chest, vvhich would have killed tb;

C. Varahala Rao, or 'CV' as he is knovm in the litenu-y wotld,

ber.ame the starting point for the present generation of Dalit poetry. His

poems 'Satyakama .lahha/i', 'Narahhali' (Human Sacrifice),

'Samskritika Punarujjee\'Gnam' (Cultural renaisance) and

'Varnavyavastha' (Caste System) have been masterpieces of Dalit

poetry. They have played a significant role in the production of a

counter-hegemonic ideology. In addition they reflect the sorrow a..:d

anguish of the Dalits. In his 'Paris Commune' poem CV suggested an

lndianized Marxism with class/caste debate. His poems have given the

earliest direction for the synthesization of Marxism and Ambedkar. )'l

Present-day Dalit literature is an inevitable spontaneous upsurge

of the suppressed voice of the Dalit masses. Their literary expressions\

are a compulsive outburst of stored anger, untold misery, resentment,

poverty, injustice, disillusionment. mental and physical persecutions.

They give voice to the Dalits' tom1ents and distressful social position in

the oppressive caste system. Bo.ija Tarakam in his poem 'I am an

Untouchable' (I 976) laments:

I am an untouchable

My carcass smells dirt

'~ Taken from the introductory poem on CV by Shambhuka. l'oyicleemihenol/am (an anthology of poems). (Dalila Vimochana Samithi, Mangalagiri. 1'.192). p. 10. (Telugu)

My life is full of bonded cry

My eyes filled with radiance

0 ... d · s·· r · d · · r sunne m un, o. rame m ram,

My head like

tighten banyan suckers

I was told to cany the dead cows

I was told to make shoes out of it

I was told not to wear them, never

I was told to live like tha{'0

But he repudiates this endless prostrating life and asserts confidently:

I am coming ...

by mutilating thy

despotic darkness

I am erupting ...

by cracking thy

barriers and trammels

I am whirlwind, Gust

Mud, Pyramid

Thunder, Flash

Chasm, Ocean

Current, Deluge

Magnanimous, Inferno

"" Tarakarn Bo_ija. Nadipuuna <iontuka (Jail Pomes) (Janapada Pmchuranalu. Hyderabad. 19!!3), p. 7!! (Tmnslatcd by the researcher).

Alpha, Omega

I . hi am ccmmg

Dal!t identity metati1Gi'pl:osed from PaHC~-~-~ u~..;habie, r

Harijan to Dalit. Each stage itas its own hi:;torical significance. in ---\

Andhra, the Daiit fuather metamorphosed into a r~axalite. SaiandrC<· in his

historic poem 'Dalit Manifesto' ( 1981) disputes and chr.llcnges all that

past paradoxical record of the hegemonic caste system:

You asked me not to enter into the temple

Well, anyhow

I am happy being an atheist

Proscribes not to study

It I study ordered to show the tongue

l comprehend how gullible you are

how prodigious you are

One uttered me

As an 'untouchable'

Another affinned

As 'Harijan'

Some rogue judged me

''' Ibid .. p.!IK (Translated by the researcher)

as a 'Wretched'

What is it for me?

Whosoever, whatever mrumer calls

When I myself am a 'Naxalite'

Ha\~ng on their values

becoming a blubbering burp

or a camel's eye

conjuring up his principles

in my trauma

h 62 Whosoever calls, w atsoever manner

In the same tone Gaddar says that the Dalits, even if they change

religion, even if they change their caste, would not be able to change

their identity. The only way for them is to take up arms, to capture State J

Slave Slave

they serf 0 lord saying so

he like how Iong-O Malanna

Why don't you revolt---0 Madiganna

6~ G. Laxmi Nar.uasaiah and Srinivas Tripurdnei (cd.). Chikkanautunna /'ala: /Jalit Poetry (Kavitwam Pr.tchuranalu. vijayawada. 1995). pp.204-5 (Tmnslatcd by the researcher).

In Madras State

Madigas Matas

unbearable of landlords' oppression

Then embraced Islam

Shankacharigadu

Skew whiffed

Hindu Society became

topsy-turvy

Even if you change religion

Your life won't be changing

Even if you change caste

you won't be getting food

You without ruling the State

Your fate does not change

For the State power Malanna

Take the rifle Madiganna63

G. Anjaiah questions the dominance of the feudal landlordism

and asserts that without the labour and sweat of the Dalits there would

be no such thing as village or town. Every village is sustained by their

hard work, ploughing, guarding, grazing, washing. Every task has to be

done by them only. Without their contribution every socially productive

instrument designed and owned by the landlords would be of no use:

1'·1 Sec, J. Tirumala Rao and Kuma Ashok (cd.). /)a/ita Geetalu (lnd part). (Sa.hithi

Circle. Hydembad. 1993), pp.l34-5. (Translated by the researcher)

Village is ours! This street is ours!

Hamlet is ours! We are for every work!

Hammer is ours! Knife is ours!

Crowbar is ours! Spade is ours!

Cart is ours! Bullock is ours!

Why is lord and lordship 64

'Shambuka' (pen name) in his poem 'Poyedecmi Lenol/am' (We

have nothing to lose) exposes the real picture of caste hypocrisy and

how it has contaminated even the powerful Naxalite movement. He

wonders how hellish is caste hypocrisy:

If Madiga wear Khadi

He is a hopeless fool

If Karnma wears it

He is simple ideal Satyagrahi

How cruel you are

If Brahmin says there is no caste

He is a great reformer

If Mala propagates the same

He is a dangerous casteist

How brutal your are

64 Jana Natya. Afandalit /'atalu Kranti /'rachuranalu. p. 21 (Translated by the researcher).

If Nagi Reddy, Pulla Reddy

You don't find caste

3ut in Satya Murthy, Padn.a Rao

Caste smell is gushing out

H f. (>5

ow unny your are.

frhe present generation Dalit literature is not a stream of pleasure. \ .

it is not a regurgitation of freakish romantic memories, not even short­

lived emotions. It is, rather, a philosophical dialogue, a socio-cultural\

and politico-cultural assertion. It represents the struggle among the 1

social forces rather than individual forccs.r.c. The common contexts of\1 I

the present Dalit literature are: alienation. oppression, brutal force.

agony, perpetual atrocities, anger, pain, privations, and sorrows. At the

same time it aims at caste-class Dalit struggle, for the creation of ,

revolutionary consciousness, self-respect, emancipation, attacking on all

social evils. It aspir~_jru:-state power. It opposes· the concepts of

pessimism, cynicism. stoicism, fatalism. superstition and romanticism. It

is the real experiences of organic life. It is for new hope, humanism.

equality, brotherhood, it endeavours a new socio-cultural identity.;

After Karamchedu, Dalit literature was thoroughly radicalized. /

Many Dalit intellectuals emerged from the Karmchedu movement. Katti

Padma Rao, the leader of this movement has written many poems on

Dalits. His 'Jalu Gantalu' (1988), 'Jana Geetam', 'Desam Diary'

M Shambulla. l'oyedeeni /,enol/a (An anthology or poems). (Dalila Vimochana Samithi. Mangalagi. 19'12). p. 33 (Translated by the researcher).

r.t. An Introduction "Question Hour" by Afsar to Ramesh.S. Tallikodi Hecharika. long poem. Pmjwalilha Publications. Hyderabad. I'J95.

(1989), 'Telugu vari Hochiman Shiv Sagar', 'Red Star', 'On

Sankarcharia' have created tremendous Dal it consciousness. His 'Des am

Diary' has been the most per1inent critique of Telugu Desam

government:

Padirikuppam, Karamchedu

Tadiparthi, Kottakota,

Neerukona, Dontali

Shiraluru, Bandlapalli

Countrywide bloodshed

by the oppressed Dalits

for their emancipatory struggles

Welcome! Welcome('7

Gorate Venkanna also asks the Dalits to revolt against the

atrocities inflicted on them by upper castes:

How many times these macabre

How many shall we perish

(Dalitanna) get organized or we can't stand

(Dalitanna) raise the rifle, or we can't Iive.6R

Vanga Poudu Prasad depicts the deplorable plight of Dalits in

their poverty-stricken, dirty, thatched colony:

There is Malapeta

at the end of the village

67 Satyanrayana, Telugu/o /)a/ita Sahi~vam. N< Tirumala Rao and Kununa Ashok. p. IOIJ.

of being oppressed

at the end of the village. 6'1

Masterji, singer, lyricist, dramatist, is among the leading Dalit

organic intellectuals who is propagating Ambedkarism along with

Marxism. Masterji's song on Ambedkar, 'Take Salutes Baba Ambedkar'

became the chorus for the present Dalit movement. His song 'Deena

Bandavulu' (Saviours of the Helpless) became the Dalit national

Great many born great

But all are not saviours of helpless

few only could liquidate our problems

Who really gave up their lives

Among them were Phule

Ambedkar and Periyar70

Masterji propounds and propagates his own theory called

'Moolavasi Siddantam' or the theory of aboriginism. According to this ---theory, Mala, Madiga and other bahujans are the real natives of this

land, but in the historical process they have been suppressed and made

slaves by the Aryans who were barbarians:

Adi Hindus-Nations Nudes

Real Indians are-Adi Indians

Aryans invaded-fought

n'J K. CharJkadu (compiled). Dalila /'ala /'mmur (loka~·ata Pmchuranalu. JIJ')(,).

70 Mastetji, Dalila Cieelalu (Dalit Writers. Anisls. Intellectuals United Forum. Hydembad). p. 2.

Weaponless-Dravidians were

defeated and-made slaves -,

Today they-are the Dalits.

His poem 'Nee/-/,a/' (Blue and Red) seeks a synthesis of

Ambedkarism and Marxism:

Under Blue Red flag "0 Sister"

You and me as equals "0 Sister"

Be ready for the Struggle "0 sister"

Oppressed would get emancipation "0 sister"

To dismantle the oppressor's rule "0 sister"

To accomplish the Dalit rule "0 sister" 72

Gaddar and Masterii are two powerful agents of the new

demo~ratic Dalit cultural revolution. Gaddar represents the Marxist­

Leninist party and he leads its cultural organization Janana~dali (

JNM). Masterji represents the Dalit bahujan organization and in 1978

started the Dalita Kala Mandali, an independent Dalit cultural

organization. Gaddar's songs are dynamic, a torrent, and a powerful

weapon for revolutionary movement. But his conclusions are class

struggle, armed struggle and Marxism and revolution. Masterji's songs

are having a moving force, they represent the real organs of Dalit history

a(Jd culture. His songs are mostly centered around Ambedkarism.

71 Ibid., pp. 7-X. 12 Ibid .. p. 4'J.

U. Sarnbashi\'a Rao, Krantikiran, Satish __ Chaday, G. Shank;r,

Endheri _Sudhakar, Johnoor, Sahu. G. Anjaiah. Rama Ra<.\ Kalekuri

Prasad (Yuruka) and many other poets and lyricists have also come up.

Satish Chandar's J>anchama Vedam, an anthology of poems, created

considerable heat in Telugu literature. U. Sambashra Rao's song en

'Dalit Maslim bhai bhai' seeks to unite the Daiit struggle.

The Dalit story and novel also occupied a distinct place in Telugu

literature. The themes of these stories reveal the reality and typical

depiction of the Dalits' life, centered around their daily struggle against

the caste-ridden society. Similarly, they reflected the denial of public

places, traditional impositions, poverty, pain, humiliations. Kolukaalill:.i

Euaya~~b.a~:'i~~~2L!La short story about the denial of access to

the public well in a small village. In order to protest the upper caste

dominance Dalits unitedly dumped the carcass of an animal in the public

. well, which led to retaliation by the upper castes.n

Boya Jangaiah's 'Bancha Rai' (1984) is a short story about the

grabbing of Dalit land by the upper caste landlords in the name of a

temple or sacred place. B.S. Ramulu 's Bratukupoom (Struggle for

Existence, 1982), is a novel about the wretched beedi (cigar) workers'

life in Telengana, written in language typical ofTelengana. B.S. Ramulu

has also written Contradictions ( 1990) and Bandhi ( 1995). His works

are widely read in Andhra. P. Nasaraiah's Eporatam AKadu (1992) is a

collection of short stories about the Dalits' life in coastal Andhra. There

are nine stories, dealing with bonded labour, land alienation, temple

:1 Chandrashekar Reddy and K. La.ximinarayana (cd.), /)a/ita 1\atha/u (Vishalandra

Publishing House, Hydcrabad. IIJIJ(,). pp. IJIJ-12(,,

entry, education, etc. Allam Rajaiah 's Bhoomi ( 1982) and Agnikanam

( 1983), which are collections of stories, have become the primary

weapons for introducing revolutionary ideas among the tribals and other

Dalits in Telengana. Sahu and Dadattyat have also written stories

depicting Dalit problems.

After Kararnchedu, the first Alllndia_ Dalit Writers-Conference

was h5_1~7 at Hyderabad. Nearly 528 delegates for all over India v-

attended. The conference was a unique effort of Boii!l Tarakarn. The r

conference unanimously took an oath saying that Dalit writers would

hold the torch of liberation and participate in people's movements. The

aims of the conference was to promote a casteless and classless society

based on human values, justice, liberty, equality and fraternity. It was

also emphasized at the conference that Dalit literature should should not

only act as a source of inspiration for oppressed people but also become

an instrument to ignite consciousness and courage. 74

The establishment of the Ambedkar Memorial Trust in 1986 also

helped to create a counter-ideology to caste dominance. ·The objectives

of the trust were to propagate the ideals of Ambedkar for establishing a

casteless and classless society; to publish books, journals and

periodicals, phamplets and conduct seminars mainly impressing the

necessity to abolish the caste system and eradicate untouchability; to

encourage writers, artists and dramatists who worked for the

propagation of removal of untouchability and the caste system. In

keeping with its mandate, the trust has played a significant role m

14 See B. Tar.tkam (cd.). The Frist A/I India LJalit Writers Conference.

conducting seminars and memorial lectures regularly. 75 The emerge1!:e

of organic Dalit cultural and literacy organizations like Dalit_Kala

Mandali, the Qalit Writers, Artist~ and Intellectuals United Fon::n

(DWAIUF)_ ~n the post-Chundur (_1_92_!) period have brought about a

perceptible ch3!!ge in the socio-cultural milieu. "These organizations

have been an instrumental in spreading the anti-caste message of

Ambedkar through song, story and speech".76 Further the DWAIUF has

regularly conducted workshops for Dalit young men and women to

identity their inclination and talents and to train them to realize their

potential.77 The starting of their own publications like Lokayata, Nalupu,

Eduveetam have also played a vital role in spreading the counter­

hegemonic ideology.

Dalit literary criticism of Katti Padma Rao 's Social

Revolutionary Writers: A /Jalitist Utermy Critique ( 1995) has been the

best literary critique. It forms part of the syllabus for postgraduate

students of Telugu. His essay on reservations, entitled "Reservation and

Hindu Mathonmadam" ( 1991) and his book Caste and Alternative

Culture ( 1995) have been trenchant critiques of the hegemonic upper

caste culture and ideology. Kancha llaiah 's essays on reservations,

particularly 'Paranna Bukkulu Pratihha (iurinch Matladutunnai'

(Parasites are talking about the merit), which were regularly published

in Nalupu, his highly Dalit organic intellectual mature work, Why I am

not a Hindu, A Sudra Critique of Hindutva l'hilo.wphy, Culture and

J'olitical Economy (1996) have become critical texts of the present

'' Interview with Gnaneswar. 21 January I'J<J7 7° K. Srinivasulu ... BSP and Caste Politics··. F/'11'. I October I <J<J.t 77

ongoing Dalit literary movement. Bo.ija Tarakam' s essay, "Caste Class"

(1996), B.S. Ranulu's, Amhedkarism and Socialism (1994), U.

Sambhasiva Rao' s qandani Prakkadasi Pattinchi, Errajandin lvfuduku

Teesu/eelagalar? (Distracting Agenda, Can you carry forward the Red

flag?) was a critical evaluation of the Marxist-Leninist movement from

1967 to 1987. Among the other literary critics from the Dalit intellectual

community are: G. Laxmi Narasaiah, Endhuri Sudhakar, K.S. Chalam,

Shiva Sagar, Bo.ija Tarakam and Vijaya Bharathi.

After Chundur many anthologies of poems have been published

by Dalit intellectuals. Some of them was, Rakta Khsetram (Blood­

soaked Field, 1991 ), a long heart-rending poem by Padma Rao about the

Chun~sacre. ( .'hikkanau:hunna Pat a (Song of Solidarity, 1995), is

an anthology of poems written by Dalits, OBCs and minorities. These

illuminating, rebellious poems were a spontaneous outpouring in

reaction to Karamchedu, Chundur and Ayodhya events where the upper

castes had instigated a carnage against the Dalits. These poems are

testimony to the inflating, sharpening Dalit literary tone in Andhra

S unkara Ramesh' s Tall ikodi H ec:hcharika (The caution of mother

hen, 1995), is a long poem. In it the mother hen cautions her Dalit brood

about the conspiracies of the upper castes to swallow them. M. Nagesh

Babu' s Velinade ( 1991) is an anthology of poems on sundry issues.

Exposing the evil practices of caste system and atrocities committed by

the upper castes on Dalits and minorities, he asks the Dalit mothers to

conceive swords in order to bring about Dalit revolution:

expectant mothers

to beget razor-sharp SWO!lls

tell our fellows

Not to make shoes with own skin

And ask them to use their landlord's skin. 78

Nishani ( 1995) is an anthology of protest poems written by

Khaza, Nagesh Babu and Theresh Babual Veeraiah. These poems brim

with anger against the upper caste pseudo writers on Dalit themes. They

attack those writers who intend to write on Dalits only to earn a name

and fame without losing their upper caste identity. The Dalit Manifesto

( 1995) is another anthology of poems written by Dalit activists,

intellectuals and young Dalit scholars. Shiv~'s famous poem

'Marching History' appears in it. This poem has been regarded as the

"poem of the present generation". Summarizing the present Dalit

movement Shiva Sagar notes:

Shambuka Sneeringly

Slaying Rama

Ekalavya's hatchet hewing

the thumbs of Orona

Bali's tiny foot trampling

Vamana underneath

Manu of being pinned eyes

of snapping off tongue

'" M. Nagcsh Babu, l"e/ivada, An Antho/ol!._v of /'onus Narasa Rao /'oet (Srija Publications. 1995), p. 40.

of pouring lead in ears

Foiling in the graveyard

Positioned on the butchered

cutter of the epoch

the roaring chandal~

sibilating four hunter hounds

on Shankara

Well done ... !

The present marching history

in the history of real Chanda Ia! 79

The emergence of the Dalit movement was associated with the

outpouring of prodigious and powerful literature bearing on the theme

of Dalit erniDJcipation. Dalit literature had transformed from passive

supplication and pleading of an earlier generation to the higher level of

revolutionary consciousness while posing a challenge to the established

order. There has been a vast gulf between Dalit organic intellectuals and

non-Dalit writers, in their expression and content. Though non-Dalit

writers have dealt with the caste and untouchability problem in their

writings, their literary expressions were not able to touch the inner

psychological world of Dalit agony. At best, they remained sympathetic

but did not pose any systematic attack on the real oppressive institutions.

''' /)a/it Manifesto: An Antholoxv of /'oems hv l"ispotana (Ccntml University. Hydcrbad, 1995). p. 114.

Dalit literature has created a vast space for the emergence of new

organic Oalit intellectuals. They were the real actors in the new

democratic revolutionary movement. They were also acri·.:e!y invoived

in the construction of new ideas, and were producers of new knowledge

which was based on their real social experience. The secular fornt of

Oalit literature could be noticed with the emergence of the new Dalit

bahujan literature encompassing the minorities, women and other

bahujan oppressed classes. Its secular content is not just the expression

of their reflective mode of thinking but it fundamentally aimed at the

intended new democratic revolution which would alter the present

position of Dalits and other oppressed masses. Thus Dalit literature is

evolving with a tremendo~ _ _p.oten.tiaLofemancipatm-y-zeaLand \1Vith

hurnani:zing content alo!lg with the Dalit movement.

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Second Dalit Literature Festival Welcomes Authors from Country and Abroad

New Delhi: The first day of the Second Dalit Festival was successfully concluded. This year’s theme of the festival was “Literature will create a new world”. Famous personalities like Mamta Kalia, Balli Singh Cheema, Chauthi Ram Yadav, Vimal Thoratc attended the festival. Apart from this, artists, writers and litterateurs from various states and countries also participated in the program. The festival began with the folk performance by a renowned artist Ramjhol from Hyderabad. The special feature of this enchanting folk singing was its style and the use of the ancient instrument Rabab in it. Famous poet Balli Singh Cheema recited his poems on destruction in the name of development and Jal, Jangal, Jameen.

After that, Dr. Hemlata and Dr. Promod Mehra duly announced the commencement of the program. The audience along with Dr. Neelam and Dr. Seema Mathur participated in the reading of the preamble. Dr. Vibha Singh Chauhan, Principal Kirorimal college emphasized the linkage between public institutions and the society. A 2-minute silence was observed in remembrance of the Dalit writers who have passed away recently. Dr. Naam Dev, the convener of the Ambedkarwadi Lekhak Sangh (ALeS), emphasized on the establishment of an equitable society while talking about Ambedkar, Marx and Phule. Suraj Badtya, founder member of ALeS said that we will soon take this festival to international level. Well-known writer Mamta Kalia said that there are many similarities between the Dalit and women culture. He said that literature should not be given its rights even from politics. He reminded the underprivileged, that the deprived class has the maximum cultural capital. Chetnarayan Rasaili, who came from Nepal, praised the constitution of India and talked about the role of literature of both countries in addressing the issue of caste. Chauthiram Yadav said that it is our misfortune that only those who fight the caste war are called casteist. Professor Kalicharan Snehi said that the symbols of Dalits should now be adopted with pride at the pan-India scale. Prominent historian Manmohan Bawa thanked the visitors and the organizers for this much-needed programme. Prof. Vivek Kumar, gave a sociological point of view on Dalit Discourse, environment, cultural capital etc in detail. The program also had a book launch event where Rhythm magazine and Books by Dr. Neelam, Dr. Nam Dev, Sudesh Kumar Tanwar, Suraj Badatya and Sujit Kumar were released. Hemant Bauddh concluded the inaugural session by singing the mesmerizing song “Karma Hai Baba Ka”.

Apart from this, in parallel sessions, the topics of ‘The Society of Dalit, tribal, minority, women’ Dalit Literature: The Song of Liberation of Past, Present and Future’ were discussed. They were presided over by Vimal Thorat and Prof. Vivek Kumar respectively. The sessions had discussion on how Dalit women are the victims of triple oppression due to their class, caste and gender. While women of tribal society have lesser gender inequality, they are subject to the plunder of their forest land by the government and corporations. All the speakers thanked the organizers and the audience for successfully organizing this event.

A book fair was also held during the festival at Kirori Mal College in which students and visitors enthusiastically took part in. Many well-known publishers participated in it.

On the second day of the festival i.e. 17th February, the issues of Dalit, women, LGBTQI and minorities etc. will be discussed in different sessions. Four parallel sessions, Kaavya Goshthi (poetry recitation event) will be held and the programme will conclude with staging of the Play “Thakur ka Kuaan”. It will also have social activist Medha Patkar along with prominent Dalit authors and poets.

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Reading Dalit literature, we encounter an India that the urban upper-caste readers choose to ignore, or a definition of India we would rather not learn.

ThePrint is publishing articles on Dalit issues as part of Dalit History Month.

“Your Dalits seem to eat ghee and  kansar , you should hear some of the other Dalit stories, there’s sheer starvation.”

My publisher was referring to Angaliyat , Gujarat’s first Dalit novel by Joseph Macwan. I had submitted its English translation, and the publisher was comparing it with English translations of Dalit stories she was receiving from other regions.

The publisher-friend’s observation has stayed with me as a guiding question: What might be the regional/class/gendered variations in the telling of a Dalit life?

Since  Angaliyat , the Vankars of Gujarat have had more opportunities of livelihood and education, partly through the textile mills, and in some areas, the influence of Christianity. It is possible that a weaving community elsewhere may not have these; and equally possible that a weaving community elsewhere may not form part of the Scheduled Castes, but belong, rather to the other backward classes list.

An earlier and even more pioneering work, Baluta  (1978) by Daya Pawar turns more inward than Angaliyat . An autobiography, perhaps the first one from Dalit writing, Baluta is one of the most profound studies of the self, split in this case between Daya and Dagdu. The politically established, acclaimed, and also contested figure of Daya Pawar asks his wandering, receding, haunting self for a story that needs to be told — a tale in fragments like its teller. Daya sketches a cartography of Bombay, the kawakhana , and the docks, through the unreliable memories of Dagdu.

When compared to Angaliyat , from its neighbouring region of Gujarat, the difference between the Marathi Baluta and Gujarati Angaliyat is striking. One is a stark account of a life and community, exposing, in the process, scabs that are both individual and collective; the other, that is Angaliyat , provides a handsome and epic narration.

Are these also the differences of svabhava , as in the regional nature and histories of the place, or individual temperament? Well, even within the same region, differences between two Dalit groups may be as irreconcilable as those between the Savarnas and the Dalits.

There can be different ways of asking the same question on the diversity of writing about the Dalit life, I suppose. For instance, a sociologist may look for demographic differences; a political scientist may begin with electoral representation. To some of us, Dalit literature provides a window into the empirical and experiential world of caste. It is as good, and as inadequate a beginning as any, to imagine the shades of emotions, the silences of the everyday life, and the persistent nature of caste-as-memory lying in both public and private repositories of the nation.

The body of Dalit literature is produced by those among the community who have found it possible to write and publish, coming from different sub-castes and regions and ideological hues. In their multilingual accounts (made available by translators), we encounter an India that the urban upper-caste readers choose to ignore, or a definition of India we would rather not learn.  An insertion of a Dalit perspective changes the institutionalised accounts of nationalism, colonialism, modernity and the many political movements, just as Telangana and Naxalism.

As I say this, two instances of Dalit writing from very recent times come to mind.

Sujata Gidla’s  Ants Among Elephants  (2017) tells us the story of a Maoist rebel based on the life of an ‘untouchable’ Christian, and Manoranjan Byapari tells us his own story as a young Naxalite in  Interrogating My Chandal Life  (English translation in 2018). Gidla’s is also a rare example of an account written in English and by a diasporic writer. Byapari’s autobiography is translated from Bengali into English by Sipra Mukherjee.

“Our stories must wrench our own hearts into narratives, preferably in monochrome. We must bear witness to our own devastation so that you don’t have to confront your role in ours,” says Dhrubo Jyoti, poignantly and powerfully, in a book called  Eleven Ways to Love (2018).  Note how lessons of intersectionality are so hard to learn that it is possible to be both Dalit and queer and ask which of these forms of outside-ness is more difficult, and when.

Written as a series of letters to ‘P’, who is a Savarana and ‘bhadralok’ from Calcutta’s intellectual-academic circles, the queer-Dalit sender of letters brings to him, and by implication to us, the upper-caste readers of this English writing, a universe marked by the fragilities of sexuality and the impermeability of caste.

The question for identities removed from privileged centres is: Which ones will draw less backlash in which context? “I knew I couldn’t be gay and lower caste together. I knew I couldn’t fend off the little jabs and innocent queries and supportive pats. So I hid my caste away.”

My attention was drawn to this writing by my daughter, almost two decades after I first established my familiarity with Dalit literature. In these years, Dalit literature has expanded in more than ways than one. The immediacy and contemporary nature of Dhrubo Jyoti’s questions, Gidla’s diasporic and English-writing position, and Byapari’s account of a city we thought we knew, characterise new shifts in the Dalit discourse — shifts in which the body and range of expressions have increased, even as legislative and social transformation remain chequered.

Rita Kothari is professor (English) at Ashoka University.

Read more from ThePrint’s Dalit History Month  archives.

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